Voice leading refers to the way you move from one chord to another in four-part writing.

My outline will basically cover two lists from the textbook – on pp. 142 – 145, and p. 147.

The textbook refers to the first list as the “nine basic rules of voice leading,” but the first is really a guideline. However, it is a really important guideline, so I’m going to say it more than once:

Keep common tones in the same voice, and move other voices to the nearest chord tones.

Part writing will go so much more smoothly if you follow this basic principle than if you ignore it.

The Nine Eight Basic Rules of Voice Leading

1. General Principle: keep common tones in the same voice, and move other voices to the nearest chord tones, as long as this does not create other voice leading errors. For example, moving from a C major triad (C – E – G) to an F major triad (F – A – C) involves one common tone between the two triads — C. If the C major triad is in root position, then there will be two C’s in the first triad (one in the bass, and one in some other voice). The bass will probably move to the root of the F major triad, but the other C can remain in its voice and repeat itself in the F major triad. The most common errors that could result are objectionable perfect parallel intervals, but you could also end up with doubling issues or missing chord tones. Remember that this is a guideline, not a rule, but that it is a great way to start the process.
   
2. Leaps: stepwise motion is preferred. Avoid large leaps (greater than a P4 or P5) in upper voices, which is like our counterpoint rules. The bass can leap often by 4/5 or even 8, as it has to move more to support the changing harmonies.
3. Augmented and diminished intervals: avoid augmented intervals. Diminished intervals usually descend, and usually occur in the bass.
4. Contrapuntal motion: motion types are the same as two voice counterpoint. Avoid having all the voices move in similar motion.
5. Forbidden parallels (P5/8): forbidden in the same way as in species counterpoint. Consecutive perfect intervals by contrary motion are also not allowed. Consecutive  perfect intervals can only happen if they are unequal (one diminished) and not in outer voices.
6. Direct/Hidden 5ths/8ves: occur when voices move in similar motion, with a leap in the soprano. This is also similar to species counterpoint.
7. Leading Tone: resolve the LT up by step to tonic, especially in outer voices. Sometimes the leading tone can be frustrated if voice above LT moves to tonic. A frustrated LT drops to the dominant scale degree.
8. Voice overlap and crossing: forbidden the same ways as in species counterpoint.
   1. The unison rule is really a subset of overlapping and crossing. You can have a unison between two voices as long as it is approached and left by contrary motion. Otherwise, you’ll have voice crossings or overlaps.

Changes of Voicing or Position

A repeated chord can its voicing change between chords. If the bass remains the same you can move either two or three of the upper voices.

If a chord changes position (from root to first inversion, for example), then one of the upper voices must remain static.

Some How-To Guidelines for Basic Types of Progression

Root movement by fifth: The smoothest voice leading occurs when the common tone remains in the same voice, and the other two upper voices move by step to the closest chord tones.(I – IV, I – V, V – I, vi – ii, ii – V, etc.)

Root movement by third: Triads with roots a third apart will have two common tones between them. Keep both common tones in the same voice, with the remaining voice moving by step. (I – vi, vi – IV, etc.)

Root movement by second: Chords a second apart will not have any common tones. These types of progression are the most susceptible to illegal parallel intervals, since the nearest chord tones are all the same distance away in the same direction. The safest voice leading involves moving all the upper voices in contrary motion to the bass.

We use four-part writing (SATB), or part-writing, to aid in our study of harmony – specifically, the horizontal movement between harmonies. The four parts are Soprano (S), Alto (A), Tenor (T), and Bass (B). The range for each voice for part-writing purposes is smaller than what a trained vocalist could easily sing. Simplifying from the book, the ranges are:

• Soprano: G5 – C4
• Alto: C5 – G3
• Tenor: G4 – C3
• Bass: C4 – E2.

Voicing

Chord voicing describes the way in which chord tones are distributed among the four voices, including the spacing between voices, and the doubling of chord tones if necessary. In practice, doublings and spacing will often be controlled by the motion between chords. For triads, at least one note will need to be doubled. The root and third of a triad must always be present.

Doublings

This information is slightly different from the sheet. Below are the guidelines that I use for chord-tone doublings.

For root position major and minor triads:

• Usually double the root. It is the most prominent chord tone, and most consonant with the bass.
• The second choice is to double the chordal fifth. The P5 is the next most stable interval harmonically.
• Double the chordal third as a last choice. While OK, it does not provide the most stable sounding chord.

Major and minor triads in first inversion:

• Often double the chord tone in the soprano voice, down an octave in the tenor voice.
• Otherwise, double the root or chordal fifth.
• Never double the third of a V chord. This doubles the leading tone, which has such a strong tendency to resolve to tonic that it appear that you have parallel octaves even if you don’t move both leading tones to tonic.

Diminished triads:

• Always appear in first inversion to avoid having a diminished fifth above the bass.
• Always double the chordal third, which is the only note that doesn’t form a dissonant interval with another note.

Spacing

The soprano, alto, and tenor parts (SAT) are considered the upper voices. Adjacent upper voices (soprano to alto, and alto to tenor) must remain within an octave of each other all the time. The spacing from soprano to tenor can be larger than an octave. There are no restrictions on the spacing from tenor to bass.

Open-spaced chords usually have more than an octave between the soprano and tenor. To achieve this spacing you will need to skip at least one chord tone between each upper voice. (Skipping one and only one chord tone of a triad between the upper voices will insure that you have a complete triad in the upper voices. Try it!)

Close-spaced chords have less than an octave between the soprano and tenor. To achieve close spacing you must not skip any chord tones between adjacent upper voices. (Even skipping one chord tone will result in an octave between soprano and tenor.)

Many first inversion triads are in what is called open-octave spacing, with the tenor doubling the soprano chord tone down an octave.

Second species counterpoint uses two notes in the counterpoint line for every one note in the cantus firmus. When writing second species counterpoint you need to make sure that the counterpoint line maintains shape and direction, rather than continually circling around the same few notes.

The meter for second species is cut time (2/2), with the first beat metrically stressed and the second beat metrically unstressed.

Unless otherwise contradicted by a second species rule, all first species rules still apply.

Rules

• The stressed half note must be consonant.
• The unstressed half note can be either consonant or dissonant.
• The only dissonance allowed (for the unstressed half) is the passing tone (PT). A passing tone fills in the gap of a melodic third.
• A PT may be consonant or dissonant. A consonant PT involves either the intervals 5 – 6, or 6 – 5.
• Neighbor notes (NN) for the unstressed half note must be consonant, involving the same intervals as the consonant PT.
• If the unstressed half note is consonant then it must remain within the same triad implied by the first half note.
• Avoid parallel 5ths and 8ves between successive strong beats. Consecutive parallel 5ths and 8ves are already not allowed, but this rule pertains to the intervals on the beginnings of measures.
• Unisons can only happen on weak beats.
• Do not repeat notes in the half note (counterpoint) line.
• The counterpoint can begin with a half rest.
• The last note in the counterpoint must be a whole note. The cadence in the counterpoint can both be whole notes.
• Climaxes can happen in the same measure if the climax of the counterpoint happens on the unstressed beat.

Note that a lot of the rules pertain to how dissonances must be handled, and how the second note fits with the first.

Writing Strategies

For beginners I think that it is much easier to start by writing a first species counterpoint line. From there you can add the second note for each measure while thinking about second species rules. With the given rules it is natural that your second species counterpoint line will have more leaps than a first species line. However, your second species line should still be mostly stepwise. You will also find that second species lines will have more changes of direction, since you have almost twice as many notes than the cantus firmus.

With practice it becomes easier to conceive a second species line from the start, skipping the first species framework.

Since species counterpoint always starts with a given melody, a cantus firmus, you will only be composing one line.

Your first steps in composing a counterpoint line involve analyzing the cantus firmus (CF).

• Identify the mode of the CF.
• Note the cadence of the CF (does it end ^2 – ^1, or ^7 – ^1).
• Note the climax of the CF (where, and what type).
• Note the shape of the CF (up, down, both).

Your initial compositional decisions will be based on your analysis of the CF.

• Since you cannot cross or overlap voices, or have parallel unisons/octaves, the shape and cadence of the CF determine the cadence of the contrapuntal line.
  • A ^2 – ^1 cadence in the CF means that you will have to cadence ^7 – ^1 (usually #^7 – ^1) in the other voice. If the CF is the lower voice, you will have to end an octave higher in the other voice to avoid crossing. If the CF is in the upper voice, you might be able to end on a PU.
  • A (#)^7 – ^1 cadence in the CF calls for a ^2 – ^1 cadence in the second line. If  the CF is in the lower voice, you might be able to end on a PU. If the CF is in the upper voice, you will end an octave lower.
  • Pencil in your cadence first.
• The shape of the CF will determine whether you can start at the unison, or if you must start at the P5 or P8.
  • A lower-voice CF that goes upward will require you to start at least a P5 above, and usually a P8 above the lower voice, to avoid problems with voice crossing and overlaps.
  • An upper-voice CF that moves downward requires you to start a P8 below.
  • In general, I like to start on the unison or octave.
• The shape and climax of the CF guides your decisions about the shape and climax of the second voice.

My guidelines differ slightly from the workbook instructions for D2. After analyzing the CF,

1. Pencil in the cadence (last two notes) of the second voice.
2. Determine your starting interval and pitch.
3. Write the first few starting pitches of the second voice.
4. Plot or visualize a general curve/shape for your second voice, noting where a climax would occur.
5. Complete the writing of the second voice. Something that can be very helpful is to write on the staff the possible consonant pitches that would fit with the given note of the CF. You can then see your choices and choose from them as your shape dictates.

As you write your second voice you should be notating the intervals on the page (below the second voice). Writing out the intervals will help you avoid breaking some of the first species rules.

When you have completed writing the second voice, you need to check your work.

1. First, check that the second line does not violate any of the rules for melodic writing.
2. Check for first species errors after checking the melody. If you’ve followed my advice for plotting possible choices and notating intervals used, this step should be pretty easy.

Remember that a lot of compositional decisions are essentially arbitrary. For example, you need to avoid having climaxes at the same point in each line, but deciding exactly where to put the climax of the second line is up to you. If you plot the shape and climax of your second line before writing the whole line, you may find that your climax choice doesn’t work when you try to get there. You can change your mind and move the climax at this point, but that doesn’t mean it was worthless to try and decide where the climax should have happened. Your arbitrary decision gave you a target to try for, and having this target helped guide you in writing pitches. Not having a target or shape means that you have to pick from a larger world of possibilities with each pitch decision. Finding ways to limit the realm of possibilities makes decisions easier to make.

First species counterpoint adds a contrapuntal line (a second voice) to an existing melody, or cantus firmus. For every note in the cantus firmus there will be a note in the second voice. Before diving into the rules, it is useful to go over some general principles of first species counterpoint.

Know the four types of motion between voices – oblique, parallel, contrary, and similar.

Each voice/line is equally good as an independent melody. This principle of equality of voices fundamentally defines species counterpoint.

The climax of each line should be at a different place, or of a different type. Independent climaxes help to achieve independence of musical line.

Each phrase starts with either a PU, P5, or P8 and ends on either a PU or P8. Starting and ending on perfect consonances gives maximum stability to the beginning and ends of phrases. Perfect intervals are used sparingly in the middle phrases.

Rules of First Species Counterpoint

Only consonant intervals between voices are used (PU/8, P5, M/m3 and compounds). This level of counterpoint is the simplest combination of voices. Dissonances require special handling (additional rules), which comes later. Note that the P4 is a dissonant interval, as are all augmented and diminished intervals.

Do not use the PU except at the beginning or end of a phrase. The perfect unison will eliminate the perception of two voices, and also creates the feeling of closure.

Perfect intervals should be approached ONLY by contrary or oblique motion. Perfect consonances really stand out in comparison to M/m intervals, and improper motion leading to them can thwart the independence of the two voices. The only exception to this rule involves “horn fifths,” which involve a descending 3rd to a 5th, or an ascending 6th to a 5th. In each case, the top voice moves by step.

Parallel and Consecutive PU/5/8s are always incorrect. Again, the starkness of perfect intervals eliminates the feeling of two independent voices.

Voices should not cross or overlap. Crossing and overlaps create aural confusion about the lines.

• voice crossing: at a given point, a lower voice has a note above a higher note, or vice versa.
• voice overlap: a higher voice is on a lower pitch than the lower voice’s immediately preceding pitch, or vice versa.

No more than three parallel 3rds or 6ths in succession. Again, too many parallel imperfect consonances work against the independence of voices.

Before one can compose multiple musical lines in combination, one must study what makes for good melodic writing. Melodic writing is technically considered “pre-species.”

This post outlines rules for proper melodic writing, and then provides some positive (“how-to”) guidelines for constructing good melodies. Make sure to read the whole post.

Rules

The rules that govern melodic writing are derived to guide you to writing interesting musical lines. I am rewording some of the rules from the book, and commenting on why the rules are important. The first five rules are the most important for understanding the basic concept of melody.

Melodies are diatonic to their mode. Chromatic alterations are only allowed for leading tones where needed (#^7 in dorian, phrygian, mixolydian, and aeolian), and step-wise ascents to the leading tone (#^6 – #^7).

Notes are rarely repeated. Repeating notes will take away from the movement and shape of the line.

Motion is mostly by steps. Step-wise motion is the basis for feeling that notes are connected into a line. While melodies with frequent leaps are more stylistically acceptable in contemporary concert music, and especially instrumental music, too many leaps will interfere in the perception of a melody as connected.

A melody should have a single focal point, or climax. The climax can be high (zenith) or low (nadir), with the melody generally building to the climax, and away from it. A single climax with a build up and let down provides a characteristic shape to the melody, and gives the melody a sense of motion (it goes somewhere and returns).

Melodies begin and end on tonic, with the ending tonic approached by step (#^7 – ^1 or ^2 – ^1).

The remaining rules provide more specific and stylistic guidelines.

Melodies should not outline tritones (specifically, the +4). Diminished fifths are ok. The melodic outline is derived from the notes where the melody changes direction. Tritone outlines create a perception of dissonance that should not be part of the melodic line.

Since melodies mostly move by step, it is understandable that leaps require extra attention (rules), mostly having to do with rules that help maintain a sense of line.

Leaps must not be by augmented or diminished intervals. Melodies usually don’t even leap by dissonant intervals (4ths and 7ths).

Leaps should not be larger than a P5. Large leaps destroy the sense of line. The only exceptions to this rule are leaps of a P8 and an ascending (only) m6.

Leaps need to be balanced with motion in the opposite direction either before or after the leap. Opening leaps of a Major 3rd are exceptions to this rule.

Large leaps (greater than a P5) will have balancing motion before AND after the leap.

Consecutive leaps must outline a major or minor triad, and have balancing motion before and after the set of leaps (like a large leap).

How to Write Good Melodies

It is easy to get caught up in the negative rules of counterpoint (“Don’t do…”) and lose track of what positive steps to take to write a melody. Keep the following ideas in mind when you try to write a melody, and then afterwards check your completed melody to make sure that it does not violate any of the dictates outlined above.

If the decision is not made for you, pick a mode and a clef to write your melody in. The mode will determine your starting and ending notes.

Melodies are usually eight to twelve notes long, with most in the nine to ten note range. Keeping that in mind will help guide your buildup and letdown to and from a climax. Climaxes usually happen about 2/3 into a melody, so that you have time to get back down (or up) to tonic.

Species counterpoint melodies usually do not stretch up or down an octave from their starting tonic, so climaxes are usually a fifth or sixth away from the starting point.

Good melodies will have several changes of direction, not just move up to a climax and then back down. Think about motion that rises then falls back some, but not all the way, as you build towards the climax. (or vice versa, if you melody moves down to a nadir.)

Since motion from the climax back to tonic usually involves fewer notes than the buildup to climax, it is ok to move without direction change towards the tonic. However, better melodies will generally include a combination of steps and a small leap if the direction doesn’t change.

I’m going to break up my counterpoint p0sts to make it easier to find the information you need to understand and complete the exercises.

Counterpoint literally refers to note against note, and is used to describe musical textures with two or more independent lines sounding together. Although we generally refer to two historical periods as the primary times for great contrapuntal music, the notion of how music moves linearly is a fundamental basis of music throughout the common practice tonality. Haydn, Beethoven, Mozart, Schubert, and many other composers have studied counterpoint extensively as part of their musical instruction.

Species counterpoint is a strict and graduated method for learning to write counterpoint. The method makes use of several over-riding principles, which lead to fairly strict rules that govern each step of the process. The idea is that you start with simple material, expanding what is possible over time as you master previous steps. You should also note that species counterpoint as a whole is a learning method for the teaching of compositional skills, not the teaching of composition as a whole, and is historical in nature.

Full instruction in species counterpoint is well beyond the scope of Theory 1. What we will be doing is working briefly through the first few steps: melodic writing, note against note (1st species), and two notes against one note (2nd species). The goal of this work is better understand the linear aspects that govern melodic and harmonic movement in the tonal music we will study through the first two years of theory study.

Don’t forget about teoria.com as a practice source for the upcoming quiz.

You can practice identifying and constructing scales, identifying and constructing intervals, and identifying and constructing key signatures at this site.

Just some quick notes to remember, with a few bits of extra information.

Tonality is a hierarchy, which means that pitches have varying levels of importance.

Functional tonality (Western tonality) relies on the major and minor scales.

You can use a major scale as an aid in identifying intervals. Ascending intervals from tonic are either M or P; descending intervals from tonic are either m or P.

There is only one minor scale, but it has three forms of common alterations (natural, harmonic, melodic).

Know the scale degree names (tonic, dominant, etc.) in both major and minor. Learn the names arranged by function out from the tonic (not in a linear order from ^1 – ^7).

Know the circle of fifths for major and minor keys.

Know how to identify key signatures either by rote memory or by the pattern of sharps/flats. In major, the last sharp is always the leading tone and the next to last flat is the tonic. You can easily identify minor keys from their major counterpart.

***Know the order of sharps and flats in  key signatures, and where to place them on staves. I didn’t go over this in class. You can see placement from the book. It does not vary. The order is based on the fifths.

Sharps: FCGDAEB

Flats: BEADGCF (the reverse of the sharps)

Know major and minor key relationships. Parallel keys (one major and one minor) share the same tonic. Relative keys (again one major and one minor) share the same key signature.

Just to keep things simple, here are a few things to remember about rhythmic notation:

• Beginning of beats should be shown with a new note value, tied to the previous note if necessary, but not beamed to a previous note.*
• Beams stay within one beat.**

*This rule means that note values do not generally start off the beat and carry over the beginning of the next beat. Break up the rhythmic value using ties. There are only two exceptions: a note can start on a strong beat and carry over a weak beat, and standard syncopation patterns that are easily recognizable.

**This rule is related to the first. Break beams at the beat. The exception to this rule are two-beat patterns that start strong and carry through weak beats (entirely through the weak beat), and two-beat patterns that are both weak beats (3/4: q, e-e-e-e, with the eighths beamed).